Life & Career

• Early training in harpsichord, organ and violin in Eisenach
• Age 15: paid chorister at St Michael's, Lüneburg
• 1708: Court Organist to Duke Ernst of Weimar — composed major organ works
• 1717: Conductor for Prince Leopold of Cöthen — composed instrumental pieces
• 1723–1750: Cantor at St Thomas' Church, Leipzig — wrote cantatas, Passions

Musical Style

• Supreme master of counterpoint
• Monothematic — one main theme throughout
• Highly complex, unambiguously tonal harmony
• Baroque characteristics: ornate, constant rhythmic pulse, imitation, sequences

Major Works

• Church: 200+ Cantatas, St Matthew Passion, St John Passion, Mass in B minor
• Harpsichord: 6 Partitas, 6 French Suites, 6 English Suites, Goldberg Variations, Italian Concerto, The Well-Tempered Clavier ("The 48")
• Orchestral: 6 Brandenburg Concertos, Violin Concertos, Orchestral Suites
• Late: The Musical Offering, The Art of Fugue (unfinished)

About The Well-Tempered Clavier

Two books, each containing 24 preludes & fugues — one in each of the 12 major and 12 minor keys. Book I completed 1722, Book II 1744. Written to exploit Equal Temperament tuning.

Prelude (Binary Form) — BWV 889

• Section A (b.1–16): Two main subjects in chromatically descending scales, heard simultaneously in invertible counterpoint. Visits tonic, dominant, relative major, subdominant. Ends with imperfect cadence in A minor.
• Section B (b.17–32): Same themes, often in inversion. Ends with perfect cadence.

Fugue (3 Voices: Soprano, Alto, Bass)

• Exposition: Subject in bass (A minor) → Tonal answer in alto (E minor) → Subject in soprano (A minor). Includes counter-subject and codettas.
• Modulatory Section: 5 episodes + subject entries in C major, E minor, D minor. Uses cycle of 5ths. No stretto.
• Recapitulation: A minor scale passages, subject in bass. Ends with tonic chord + Tierce de Picardie.
• Key fact: It is a tonal fugue (answer is not exact transposition). No stretto.

Baroque Characteristics in this Piece

Historical Position

Appreciated more for organ playing than composition during his lifetime. Music considered old-fashioned by death (1750). Revived in 19th century by Felix Mendelssohn. Now considered a cornerstone of Western music.

Contemporaries

G.F. Handel, G.P. Telemann, Johann Quantz, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Domenico Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi.

Life & Career

• Born Hamburg 1833; settled in Vienna 1868, stayed until death
• Earned living as teenager playing piano in theatres and taverns
• 1853: Recognised by Robert Schumann; compositions accepted for publication
• Deep friendship with Clara Schumann, lasting until her death in 1896
• Inspired by clarinettist Richard Mühlfeld to continue composing after 1890

Musical Style

• Romantic in melody and harmony, classical in formal construction
• Part of the "Brahms vs Wagner" debate — preserver of classical tradition
• Rich harmonies, lyrical melodies, full textures

Major Works

• Orchestral: 4 Symphonies, 2 Piano Concertos, Violin Concerto, German Requiem
• Chamber: Clarinet Quintet, Piano Quintet, String Quartets
• Piano: 3 early Sonatas, Ballades, Capriccios, Intermezzos, Rhapsodies, Studies, Variations, Waltzes, Opp. 116–119

About the Intermezzo Op. 118 No. 2

One of Brahms's last piano works (Opp. 116–119, 1891–93). An Intermezzo is a short lyrical concert piece. Melody is almost entirely within soprano voice range.

Structure (Ternary Form ABA)

• A (b.1–48): 8-bar melody heard twice (2nd time pp with harmonic changes). A major → E major (dominant). Increasing chromaticism with dominant pedals. Theme inverted in b.35–48.
• B (b.49–76): F# minor → C# minor. Più lento in F# major with canonic imitation. Builds to ff climax, returns to A major ~b.75.
• A (b.77+): 8-bar melody once only, with more intensity and altered harmony. Higher climax note in b.82.

Romantic Characteristics in this Piece

Key Terms

• Andante teneramente: at an easy walking pace, tenderly
• Calando: becoming softer and slower
• Più lento: slower
• Cresc un poco animato: gradually louder and a little animated

Contemporaries

Robert Schumann, Richard Wagner, Anton Bruckner, Franz Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Antonin Dvorak.

Life & Career

• Father Leopold was composer & deputy Kapellmeister in Salzburg
• Prodigious talent: composing by age 5; Grand Tour of Europe 1763–66
• Met J.C. Bach in London; influenced by Italian opera, Haydn
• Entered Archbishop's service 1769; left in 1781, settled in Vienna
• 1782: Married Constanze Weber; 1787: appointed Kammermusicus by Emperor Joseph II
• Died in Vienna 1791, aged 35

Major Works

• Piano: 27 Concertos, 18 Sonatas, 16 Sets of Variations, 6 Fantasies
• Opera: The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, The Magic Flute
• Orchestral: 41 Symphonies (incl. Paris, Linz, Jupiter)
• Chamber: 25 String Quartets, 6 String Quintets, 35 Violin Sonatas, Clarinet Quintet
• Church: Masses, unfinished Requiem, Exultate Jubilate, Ave Verum Corpus
• Note: Works catalogued by Ludwig von Köchel (K numbers)

1st Movement — Sonata Form, F major, Allegro

• Exposition: 1st Subject (b.1–21) F major, two themes. Transition b.21–40 → D minor, C minor. 2nd Subject (b.41–86) in C major/C minor (dominant). Codetta b.86–93.
• Development (b.94–132): New theme from 2nd subject rhythm → cycle of 5ths (C minor → G minor → D minor). Returns to F major via dominant 7th.
• Recapitulation (b.133+): All in F major/F minor. 2nd Subject now in F major.

2nd Movement — Modified Sonata Form, B♭ major, Adagio

• Song-like melody with Alberti bass; decorated with turns and chromatic unessential notes
• Development omitted
• Embellishments in recapitulation (normally improvised by performer)

3rd Movement — Sonata Form, F major, Allegro assai

• Two contrasting melodies in First Subject
• Development includes free fantasia passages in C minor, G minor, B♭ major, F minor
• Codetta is a return of the "missing" final section of 1st subject
• Allegro assai: very fast and lively; Calando: becoming softer

Classical Characteristics in this Piece

Contemporaries

Johann Albrechtsberger, Joseph Haydn, J.C. Bach, Luigi Boccherini, Muzio Clementi, Antonio Salieri, Karl Stamitz.

Life & Career

• Studied at Williams Conservatory (under Alberto Williams), then National Conservatory 1936–38 with José André and Athos Palma
• First composition: ballet Panambi (1937)
• 1942: Guggenheim Fellowship; studied with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood, USA
• Professor at National Conservatory of Argentina 1941–45; students included Astor Piazzolla
• Director of La Plata Conservatory; Dean at Argentine Catholic University
• Spent final years in Geneva; lived away from Argentina during Peron regime

Compositional Style (3 Phases)

• Objective Nationalism (early): Direct use of folk material — Danzas Argentinas, Panambi, Estancia
• Subjective Nationalism (mid): Personal style, still distinctly Argentinian — 1st Piano Sonata, 1st String Quartet
• Expressionism (late): Highly charged, often atonal, 12-tone techniques (like Alban Berg) — Piano Concertos, operas

Piano Works

• 3 Sonatas, 2 Concertos
• Danzas Argentinas Op. 2
• 12 Preludios americanos Op. 12
• Suite de danzas criollas Op. 15
• Tres piezas Op. 6 (includes Criolla), Malambo Op. 7

Other Major Works

• Operas: Don Rodrigo, Bomarzo, Beatrix Cenci
• Ballets: Panambi, Estancia
• Orchestral: Violin Concerto, 2 Cello Concertos, Harp Concerto
• Chamber: 3 String Quartets, Pampeana No. 1 (violin & piano), Pampeana No. 2 (cello & piano)

About Criolla

Third of Tres piezas Op. 6. "Criolla" = Creole — Latin American style for native-born people of European (Spanish) ancestry. Dedicated to Mercedes de Toro (later Ginastera's wife). Other pieces in set: Cuyana, Norteña.

Structure (Ternary ABA, A major)

• Section A (b.1–87): Energetic, rhythmic — suggests guitar strumming. Hemiola rhythm (alternating 3/4 and 6/8). Chords built from 4ths and 5ths. Strong dissonance. Tonic note constantly repeated. b.17–24: more lyrical, flowing melody. b.25–55: interval of 4th dominates, chromatic, tonal ambiguity.
• Section B (b.88–116): Much slower, lyrical — milonga character (related to habanera and tango). A minor, ambiguous tonality. Narrow pitch range melody descending from D to A. Descending diminished chords.
• Section A (b.117+): Reprise of A with variations, glissandi, increasing energy. Ends with dominant and tonic notes in bass.

Stylistic Characteristics in Criolla

Key Terms in Score

• Allegro: fast and lively
• Allargando: becoming broader (slower)
• Marcato e con molto sentimento: emphatic, with much sentiment
• Muy lento: very slow
• Cantando: in a singing style
• Con abandono: with abandonment / passionately
• Poco a poco: little by little

Contemporaries

Aaron Copland (American), Shostakovich (Russian), Samuel Barber (American), Astor Piazzolla (Argentinian), Benjamin Britten (English), Leonard Bernstein (American).

Baroque (c.1600 – c.1750)

• Instrument: Harpsichord, clavichord
• Forms: Binary, ternary, ritornello, fugue, dance suites
• One mood, one theme, constant rhythmic pulse
• Counterpoint & imitation, polyphonic texture
• Terraced dynamics, strong articulation, ornamentation
• Modulations to closely related keys; Tierce de Picardie in minor
• Composers: Bach, Handel, Telemann, Rameau, Scarlatti, Vivaldi, Purcell, Couperin

Classical (c.1750 – c.1810)

• Instrument: Fortepiano
• Forms: Sonata, rondo, minuet & trio, theme & variations
• Homophonic texture; clear melody + subordinate accompaniment
• Short, balanced phrases; scales and broken chords in melodies
• Alberti bass; discreet sustaining pedal
• Dynamic contrasts important but not extreme
• Composers: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Clementi, Hummel, Schubert

Romantic (c.1810 – c.1900)

• Instrument: Pianoforte (still developing)
• Forms: Ternary, through-composed (free form)
• Rubato, spontaneity, personal involvement
• Thick textures, large chords, wide range; pedal essential
• Long lyrical phrases, chromatic harmonies, rich 7th/9th chords
• Modulations beyond closely related keys; by 3rds common
• Composers: Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Grieg, Albéniz

20th Century

• Great diversity of styles; some abandoned common-practice principles
• Atonality; serial/12-tone techniques (Schoenberg, Berg)
• Percussive piano use (Bartók, Prokofiev)
• Neoclassicism; nationalism (Ginastera)

Development of the Piano

• ~1400–1800: Harpsichord — strings plucked by quill; no dynamic shading from touch alone
• ~1400–1800: Clavichord — strings struck by tangent; capable of dynamics but very soft tone; Bach's favourite
• ~1700: Bartolomeo Cristofori (Florence) invented the piano — "gravicembalo col piano e forte"
• Fortepiano (late 18th C): Wood frame, leather hammers, ~5½ octaves, knee-operated sustaining
• 1821: Double-escapement action (Sébastien Erard) — rapid repetition
• 1826: Felt hammer coverings (Henri Pape)
• 1859: Overstringing (Henry Steinway Jr.) — longer bass strings, sympathetic vibration
• Modern piano: Iron frame, 7 octaves, felt hammers, overstrung bass, three pedals

Fugue Structure (for Bach questions)

• Exposition: Subject in each voice; Answer (transposed to dominant); Counter-subject; Codetta
• Real answer: Exact transposition; Tonal answer: Slightly altered
• Modulatory Section: Episodes, Stretto, Inversion, Augmentation
• Recapitulation: Final subject statement in tonic key

What the Examiners Want

• Extended answers — more than one or two words
• Show understanding, not just memorised facts — use your own words
• Always relate back to the pieces you are playing — use the score!
• Discuss form in about 5 sentences clearly

What to Memorise

• ✅ Composer birth/death dates
• ✅ Year your piece was written (if possible)
• ✅ At least 6 other important works per composer (especially piano works)
• ✅ Stylistic characteristics of each period
• ✅ Key formal structure of each piece
• ❌ Bar numbers (just point to score)
• ❌ Every cadence (only note important structural ones)

Instrument Questions (if piece pre-1900)

• Bach (1750): Written for harpsichord/clavichord — no dynamic shading from touch, no sustain pedal, different tone quality
• Mozart (1780s): Written for fortepiano — lighter tone, smaller range (~5½ oct.), wood frame, leather hammers, knee sustaining pedal
• Brahms (1891): Written for modern pianoforte

Is This Piece Typical of the Period?

• Bach: Yes — highly typical Baroque counterpoint, monothematic, fugal structure
• Brahms: Yes — typical late Romantic style, lyrical, chromatic, rubato
• Mozart: Yes — typical Classical style, elegant, homophonic, sonata form
• Ginastera: Yes — typical of his early nationalist style, but also shows 20th century features (dissonance, atonality, chords from 4ths/5ths)